1	Philosophy in Western Culture Donald T. Williams, PhD Toccoa Falls College
2	I. What is Philosophy? A. Etymologically Filew (phileo) = Love + Sofia (sophia) = Wisdom “The Love/Pursuit of Wisdom”
3	I. What is Philosophy? A. Etymologically B. By Example: Answer the “Great Questions” by Rational Thought: What is Real? (Metaphysics) Who is Man? (Anthropology) Why are we Here? (Axiology) How do we Know? (Epistemology)
4	I. What is Philosophy? B. By Example: Answer the Great Questions by Rational Thought But Existentialists & Logical Positivists Deny the Meaning of the Questions. Therefore some say 20^th C. has only “Anti-Philosophy.” But: Answers implied by the very Denial.
5	I. What is Philosophy? C. By Usage: “Philosophy of X ” View of what nature/purpose of X ought to be. Kinds of Questions asked: What constitutes Data? What are the valid Rules of Interpretation? How does it relate to First Principles? What is its Meaning for Life as a Whole?
6	I. What is Philosophy? A. Etymologically, fileo + sofia B. By Example: Ask “Great Questions” C. By Usage: “Philosophy of X” D. Summary Understand X in terms of First Principles Primarily through Reason Ultimately concerned with Great Questions Metaphysics Anthropology Axiology Epistemology
7	II. Relation to Theology & Christianity A. Relation to Theology 1. Both Deal with the “Great Questions.” 2. Use different Methodology Theology is Expository Philosophy is Analytic 3. Can be Complementary.
8	II. Relation to Theology & Christianity B. Can Philosophy Be Christian? 1. Problems Inherently Humanistic? Biblical References Acts 17:18 Col. 2:8
9	Acts 17:18, 32 “And some of the Epicurean and Stoic philosophers were conversing with him. And some were saying, ‘What would this idle babbler wish to say?’ . . . Now when they heard of the resurrection from the dead, some began to sneer . . . .”
10	Colossians 2:8 “See to it that no one takes you captive through philosophy and empty deception, according to the tradition of men, according to the elementary principles of this world, rather than according to Christ.”
11	B. Can Philosophy Be Christian? 2. Answers Biblical Command Biblical Precedent Philosophy can choose Obedience “The Handmaid of Theology”
12	B. Can Philosophy Be Christian? 3. What can Philosophy offer as Handmaid? Sharpen Tools of Thought (Logic) Identify Questions, Implications Perceive Architectural Unity/Structure Keep us in Touch with the World
13	B. Can Philosophy Be Christian? 3. What can Philosophy offer as Handmaid? Summary: “Fides quaerens intellectum,” “Faith seeking understanding.” --Anselm of Canterbury
14	III. Some Key Moments in the History of Western Philosophy The Greeks: Pre-Socratics, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle Augustine: A Christian Role-Model Rationalism: DesCartes, Kant, Hegel Empiricism: Lock, Hume 20^th Century: Positivism, Existentialism, Etc.
15	The Pre-Socratics Heraclitus Ca. 500 BC Flux “You can’t step in the same river twice.” Parmenides Born ca. 515 BC Change is an Illusion Mnemonic Device: “Par”menance
16	The Pre-Socratics Men once thought that it would be nice To step in the same river twice. But then Heraclitus, As if just to spite us, Said, “No! Once will have to suffice.”
17	The Pre-Socratics “The water is flowing away; The new that arrives does not stay. Therefore my conclusion: All else is illusion. There is change; that is all we can say.”
18	The Pre-Socratics Parmenides answered, “Not so! The stream doth eternally flow. What is permanent’s real. So, whatever you feel, There’s no motion and no place to go.”
19	The Pre-Socratics He went on, “Heraclitus, you dunce! Why attempt such ridiculous stunts? With no motion nor change, You can’t even arrange To step in the first river once.”
20	The Pre-Socratics Is the world all in flux or immutable? The answers both seemed irrefutable. But while they were debating, Some children went wading Once—twice—and it seemed somewhat suitable.
21	The Greeks: Socrates Circa 400 BC No Writings; No System Oral Teachings preserved by Plato Oracle: The Wisest Man Socratic Method “The Unexamined Life is not worth living.”
22	The Greeks: Plato 427-347 BC Disciple of Socrates Emphasized Ideas, Forms, Universals Particulars/Things = Reflections of Ideas Father of Rationalism “Myth of the Cave”
23	Platonism
24	Plato’s Myth of the Cave
25	Plato’s Myth of the Cave The fleeting shadows flow across the wall; That’s all we know. We think they may arise Outside our minds and bring before our eyes Some glimpse of truth—but by the time they fall To us, a faint and hieroglyphic scrawl Is all that’s left. We try to analyze, Deduce from patterns what the shapes disguise— They’re hard to catch and harder to recall.
26	Plato’s Myth of the Cave We think reflections of reality Are cast by sunlight shining—how we crave To turn and look—but still we strive in vain. No merely mortal man will ever see Whether the Door behind us in the Cave Is there, so firmly Fate has bound our chain.
27	The Greeks: Aristotle 384-322 BC Disciple of Plato,Tutor of Alexander the Great Emphasized Particulars, Things, Observation Father of Empiricism “In philosophy there is Plato and Aristotle; all else is footnotes.”
28	Augustine of Hippo 354-430 AD Confessions, City of God “Tolle, lege.” “Take up and read.” Biblical Approach to Platonism logos (logos); Illumination (John 1:9)
29	Augustine, continued “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. . . .In him was life, and the life was the light of men. And the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness could not overcome it. . . . There was the true light, which, coming into the world, enlightens every man” (John. 1:1, 4-5, 9).
30	Augustine, continued Biblical Approach to Platonism logos (logos); Illumination (John 1:9) Rationes Aeternae (Eternal Reasons) “Credo ut intelligam,” “ I believe in order that I may understand.” Scientia (Knowledge) vs. Sapientia (Wisdom)
31	Thomas Aquinas 1225-1274 AD Summa Theologiae Scholastic Method “Baptized” Aristotle Two Important Ideas: Two Kinds of Knowledge The “Five Ways”
32	Aquinas on Knowledge Two Ways of Knowing A. Philosophy 1. Reason Alone 2. Includes Knowledge that God exists. B. Theology 1. Adds Faith and Revelation 2. Includes Belief in God
33	Aquinas on Knowledge Critique Definition of Faith vs. Reason Augustine: Faith required for all knowing Schaeffer: Aquinas made Reason “Autonomous” Law of Unintended Consequences
34	Aquinas: the “Five Ways” 1. Motion/Change requires a Prime Mover. 2. Effects require a First Cause. 3. Contingency requires a Necessary One. 4. Imperfection requires a Perfect One 5. Design requires a Designer Therefore God exists.
35	Aquinas: the “Five Ways” Critique 1. Infinite Regress? 2. Is it the God of the Bible? 3. Focuses General Revelation (Ps. 19:1) 4. Useful to Clarify Alternatives 5. Needs to be Supplemented
36	Rene DesCartes 1596-1650 Rationalism Principle of Doubt “Cogito ergo sum.” “I think; therefore, I am.”
37	DesCartes There once was a man named DesCartes Who asked, “Where should philosophy start?” He said, “If I can doubt it, I’ll just do without it. Now, that out to make me look smart.”
38	DesCartes So he doubted the clear and the plain To see what would finally remain. ‘Twas thus he found out There was no way to doubt The doubt in the doubter’s own brain.
39	DesCartes “I exist!” then with joy he concluded. “On this point I cannot be deluded. Even though it sounds dumb, If I think—ergo sum!” To this day he has not been refuted.
40	DesCartes If you ask what this tale is about, It’s that doubting must always run out. For there’s no way to doubt That you’re doubting the doubt That you doubt when you’re doubting your doubt.
41	John Locke 1632-1704 Empiricism Foundations for Science Tabula Rasa “Blank tablet”
42	David Hume 1711-1776 Skeptical Empiricism Miracles contradict “universal experience.” Theology = “nothing but sophistry and illusion.”
43	Hume David Hume Would never presume To believe in a miracle: He was much too empirical.
44	Immanuel Kant 1724-1804 Rationalist Subject-Object “Ding an Sich,” “Thing in itself” “Bluspels” (C. S. Lewis)
45	Immanuel Kant Subject - Object
46	Kant “Our knowledge,” one sage used to rant, “Is inevitably always aslant. The true Ding an sich Is so sly and so slick, That when you try to see it, you Kan’t.”
47	G. F. W. Hegel 1770-1831 Rationalist Dialectic Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis Influenced Marx “Dialectical Materialism”
48	Hegel’s Dialectic Thesis Antithesis Synthesis Antithesis Synthesis Antithesis
49	IV. Some 20^th Cent. Options A. Logical Positivism Radical Empiricism “Verifiability Criterion” Antony Flew, A. J. Ayer, Rudolph Carnap Wittgenstein: “Whereof we cannot speak, we must be silent.” Evangelical Version: John W. Montgomery
50	IV. Some 20^th Cent. Options B. Existentialism (Camus, Sartre) “Existence Precedes Essence” Affirmation of Absurdity Create Personal Meaning Pursuit of Freedom Strong in Artistic Community
51	IV. Some 20^th Cent. Options C. Process Philosophy (Whitehead) D. Eastern Mysticism, New Age E. Neo-Thomism (Maritain, Gilson) Evangelical Versions: Geisler, Kreeft F. Calvinistic Presuppositionalism (Dooyeweerd, Van Til, Rushdoony, Schaeffer)
52	IV. Some 20^th Cent. Options F. Calvinistic Presuppositionalism Roots in Augustinianism All Beliefs = Faith-Based Role of Presuppositions Common Ground? Must Begin with God
53	IV. Some 20^th Cent. Options Presuppositionalism: Critique Positive Necessity of Faith Role of Presuppositions Analysis of Worldviews Negative Some = Extreme on Common Ground Doctrinaire in Methodology
54	IV. Some 20^th Cent. Options G. Reformed Epistemology Alvin Plantinga, Nicholas Wolterstorf “Warranted” Beliefs Beliefs “Properly Basic” H. A Helpful Non-Conformist: Michael Polanyi Personal Knowledge I. Post-Modernism
55	CONCLUSION Credo ut Intelligam. Fides Quaerens Intellectum. Handmaid of Theology “We are destroying speculations and every lofty thing raised up against the knowledge of God, and we are taking every thought captive to the obedience of Christ” (2 Cor. 10:5).
56	CONCLUSION The fleeting shadows flow across the wall; That’s all we know. We think they may arise Outside our minds and bring before our eyes Some glimpse of truth—but by the time they fall To us, a faint and hieroglyphic scrawl Is all that’s left. We try to analyze, Deduce from patterns what the shapes disguise— They’re hard to catch and harder to recall.
57	CONCLUSION We think reflections of reality Are cast by sunlight shining—how we crave To turn and look—but still we strive in vain. No merely mortal man will ever see Whether the Door behind us in the Cave Is there, so firmly Fate has bound our chain.
58	CONCLUSION So many years we strove against the chain That gradually some gave up, and hope was dead. “There is no Door; there is no Cave,” they said, “No explanation, nothing to explain. It’s just a game you play inside your brain: All the poetry you’ve ever read Makes chemical reactions in your head; That’s all that Pleasure is, and also Pain.”
59	CONCLUSION What of the Beautiful, the Good, the True? “They’re all illusions; they are all the same, Sounds upon the wind, an empty name, And that is all that can be understood.” But then, the rule that says that nothing’s true Must be applied to their denial too!
60	CONCLUSION So hope could not completely be denied. Yet still the shadows flicker on the wall, And we’re not certain what they mean at all In spite of every theory we have tried. If only one of us could get outside Into the Light that fills that vaster hall And not go blind, but come back and recall For us the land where the True Shapes abide!
61	CONCLUSION If only! But the ancient Grecian knew No way that it could be. It seemed absurd To hope or to despair. So still the True Was but in shadows seen, in echoes heard— Until the birth of a barbaric Jew Who was in the Beginning; was the Word. In thy Light we see light.
62	Philosophy in Western Culture Donald T. Williams, PhD Toccoa Falls College